References for ‘Dr Karl’s Little Book of Climate Change Science’

Adams, K, Melvin, C & Raskind-Hood, C 2008, ‘Sociodemographic, insurance, and risk profiles of maternal smokers post the 1990s: How can we reach them?’, Nicotine & Tobacco Research, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 1121–1129, viewed 11 March 2021, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18629721/.

Bonnet, G 2021, Wagering everything we’ve got, Skeptophilia.com, viewed 11 March 2021, http://www.skeptophilia.com/2015/12/wagering-everything-weve-got.html.

Belesky, J 2021, What does life insurance cost for a smoker?, Canstar, Canstar, viewed 1 April 2021, https://www.canstar.com.au/life-insurance/smokers-life-insurance-cost/.

Fleck, A 2024, Infographic: Global Progress in Graphic Cigarette Warnings, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/32332/jurisdictions-requiring-picture-warnings-on-cigarette-packages/.

‘Insurance Firms Try Plan for Non-Smokers’, The Miami Herald (Miami, Florida) 27 Oct 1963, p 53.

Jones, S 2024, Exposing the Secrets of Power: What the Tobacco and De Beers Playbooks Teach Us About Influence and Control In the corporate and political arenas, power is often wielded through strategies of influence and control that are as subtle as they are effective. Terms like ‘the tobacco playbook’ and “the D, Linkedin.com, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/unveiling-secrets-influence-lessons-from-tobacco-de-jones-bsc-maig-acrdc.

‘Life Insurance Break for Non-Smokers Considered’, The Rock Island Argus (Rock Island, Illinois), 17 March 1960, p 26.

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (US) Office on Smoking and Health 2014, Fifty Years of Change 1964–2014, Nih.gov, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US), viewed 14 March 2021, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK294310/.

Richter, F 2024, Infographic: Has Smoking Lost Its Cool?, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/20385/cigarette-sales-in-the-united-states/.

Richter, F 2024, Infographic: 25 Years of Progress in the Fight Against Smoking, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/31563/smoking-prevalence-among-persons-aged-15-and-older/.

The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General 2014, viewed 11 March 2021, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24455788/.

Canberra Times

‘Different Rate for Smokers’, The Canberra Times, Vol. 41. No. 11,504, 10 October 1966, p 10.

Camuffo, D & Bertolin, C 2011, ‘The earliest temperature observations in the world: the Medici Network (1654–1670)’, Climatic Change, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 335–363, viewed 12 March 2021, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-011-0142-5#article-info.

485 million-year temperature record of Earth reveals Phanerozoic climate variability 2024, EurekAlert!, viewed 4 February 2025, https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1058147.

Judd, EJ, Tierney, JE, Lunt, DJ, Montañez, IP, Huber, BT, Wing, SL & Valdes, PJ 2024, ‘A 485-million-year history of Earth’s surface temperature’, Science, vol. 385, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), no. 6715, viewed 4 February 2025, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk3705.

Malley, N 2020, Australians greatly over value role of oil and gas in economy, Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 14 March 2021, https://todayspaper.smedia.com.au/smh/PrintArticle.aspx?doc=SMH%2F2020%2F10%2F28&entity=ar01601&mode=text.

Toscano, N & Foley, M 2020, Japan’s new net-zero goal threat to gas, coal exports, Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 14 March 2021, https://todayspaper.smedia.com.au/smh/PrintArticle.aspx?doc=SMH%2F2020%2F10%2F28&entity=ar01600&mode=text.

Wikipedia Contributors 2021, Economy of Australia, Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, viewed 14 March 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Australia.

Readfearn, G 2023, ‘Where did I go wrong?’ The scientist who tried to raise the climate alarm, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 4 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/20/where-did-i-go-wrong-the-scientist-who-tried-to-raise-the-climate-alarm#:~:text=’%20The%20scientist%20who%20tried%20to%20raise%20the%20climate%20alarm,-This%20article%20is&text=%E2%80%9CI%20often%20wonder%3A%20where%20did,Is%20that%20my%20responsibility%3F%E2%80%9D.

The new tobacco: Calls for ad ban as influencers spruik fossil fuel 2023, Thenewdaily.com.au, viewed 4 February 2025, https://www.thenewdaily.com.au/finance/2023/11/16/fossil-fuel-online-advertising.

Evans, N 2020, BHP says support of lobbyists ‘conditional’, The Daily Telegraph, viewed 13 March 2021, https://metros.smedia.com.au/thedailytelegraph?printArticle.aspx?doc=NCTELE%2F2020%2F08%2F15&entity=ar08500&mode=text.

Key, P 2020, BHP tightens climate screws on lobby groups’ Financial Review, viewed 13 March 2021, https://todayspaper.smedia.com.au/afr/PrintArticle.aspx?doc=AFR%2F2020%2F15&entity=ar02402&mode=text.

Parkinson, G, 2021, How carbon lobbyists control the climate policy debate in Australia 2021, RenewEconomy, viewed 5 February 2025, https://reneweconomy.com.au/how-carbon-lobbyists-control-the-climate-policy-debate-in-australia/.

Toscano, N 2020, BHP reins in fossil fuel lobby groups, Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 13 March 2021, https://todayspaper.smedia.com.au/smh/PrintArticle.aspx?doc=SMH%2F2020%2F08%2F15&entity=ar00805&mode=text.

Clean Up

Hall, S 2015, Exxon Knew about Climate Change Almost 40 Years Ago, Scientific American, viewed 4 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/exxon-knew-about-climate-change-almost-40-years-ago/.

Willacy, M 2016, Taxpayers exposed to $3b clean-up bill of Queensland’s coal mines, Government report warns, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-04/taxpayers-exposed-to-multi-billion-clean-up-of-coal-mines-report/7685760.

Collusion:Oligopoly

First, H & Bush, D 2022, Opinion | To Cut Gas Prices, Congress Should Allow the U.S. to Sue OPEC, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/03/opinion/gas-prices-russia-opec.html.

Cover-Up

BigPegg, D & Evans, R 2019, Revealed: top UK thinktank spent decades undermining climate science, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/10/thinktank-climate-science-institute-economic-affairs.

Drollette, D 2021, Big Oil’s lies about climate change—a climate scientist’s take, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, viewed 5 February 2025, https://thebulletin.org/2021/07/big-oils-lies-about-climate-change-a-climate-scientists-take/.

Franta, B 2018, On its 100th birthday in 1959, Edward Teller warned the oil industry about global warming, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2018/jan/01/on-its-hundredth-birthday-in-1959-edward-teller-warned-the-oil-industry-about-global-warming

How tactics to fight climate change disinformation are evolving | Science News 2021, Science News, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-change-disinformation-denial-misinformation.

Joshi, K 2021, In Australia’s climate wars, delay and deception are the new denial, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/dec/30/in-australias-climate-wars-delay-and-deception-are-the-new-denial.

John, R 2024, Revealed: Big Oil Told 70 Years Ago That Fossil Fuel Emissions Could Impact ‘Civilization’, DeSmog, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.desmog.com/2024/11/12/revealed-big-oil-told-70-years-ago-that-fossil-fuel-emissions-could-impact-civilization/.

Kusnetz, N 2021, Big Oil’s Top Executives Strike a Common Theme in Testimony on Capitol Hill: It Never Happened – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 5 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/29102021/big-oil-executive-testimony-capitol-hill/.

Taft, M 2022, Chevron Is Hiring Journalists for Its ‘Newsroom’, Gizmodo, viewed 5 February 2025, https://gizmodo.com/chevron-is-hiring-journalists-for-its-newsroom-1848360574.

Oreskes, N & Supran, G 2021, The forgotten oil ads that told us climate change was nothing, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/the-forgotten-oil-ads-that-told-us-climate-change-was-nothing.

Subsidies, Taxes

Australian fossil fuel subsidies surge to $11.6 billion in 2021-22 2022, The Australia Institute, viewed 5 February 2025, https://australiainstitute.org.au/post/australian-fossil-fuel-subsidies-surge-to-11-6-billion-in-2021-22/.

Black, S, Liu, AA, Parry, IW.H & Vernon-Lin, N 2023, IMF Fossil Fuel Subsidies Data: 2023 Update, International Monetary Fund, IMF Working Paper, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2023/08/22/IMF-Fossil-Fuel-Subsidies-Data-2023-Update-537281.

Fossil Fuel Subsidies 2019, IMF, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/climate-change/energy-subsidies.

Hannam, P 2022, WA’s offshore gasfields pay almost no royalties and stoke carbon emissions, report finds, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/17/was-offshore-gasfields-pay-almost-no-royalties-and-stoke-carbon-emissions-report-finds.

Heede, R 2019, It’s time to rein in the fossil fuel giants before their greed chokes the planet, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/09/fossil-fuel-giants-greed-carbon-emissions.

Khadem, N 2023, More than 800 large companies paid no tax in 2021-22, Australian Taxation Office reveals, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-09/831-large-companies-paid-no-tax-in-2021-22-ato-tax-transparency/103079948.

Kotchen, MJ 2021, The producer benefits of implicit fossil fuel subsidies in the United States, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 118 (14) e2011969118, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011969118.

Mazengarb, M 2022, Western Australian gas producers pay paltry royalties to government 2022, RenewEconomy, viewed 5 February 2025, https://reneweconomy.com.au/western-australian-gas-producers-pay-paltry-royalties-to-government/#google_vignette.

O’Malley, N 2022, Caribbean islands’ leader pleads for fossil fuel giants to pay compensation, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/call-for-fossil-fuel-giants-to-pay-climate-compensation-20221109-p5bwv9.html.

Vorrath, S, 2022, Gas giants paying zero income tax on Australian operations, new data shows 2022, RenewEconomy, viewed 5 February 2025, https://reneweconomy.com.au/gas-giants-paying-zero-income-tax-on-australian-operations-new-data-shows/.

Yale Environment 30, 2020, Fossil Fuels Received $5.9 Trillion In Subsidies in 2020, Report Finds, Yale E360, viewed 5 February 2025, https://e360.yale.edu/digest/fossil-fuels-received-5-9-trillion-in-subsidies-in-2020-report-finds.

Future Plans

Carrington, D 2023, ‘Insanity’: petrostates planning huge expansion of fossil fuels, says UN report, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/08/insanity-petrostates-planning-huge-expansion-of-fossil-fuels-says-un-report.

ABC News 2021, ‘Carbon Footprints’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/greatmomentsinscience/carbon-footprints/12924338.

ABC News 2021, ‘BP’s Carbon Campaign’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/greatmomentsinscience/bps-carbon-campaign/13058072.

Berohn, K 2019, How to shrink your carbon footprint when you travel, Mashable, viewed 12 March 2021, https://mashable.com/article/sustainable-travel/.

BP Global – Environment and society – Carbon reduction 2020, Archive.org, viewed 12 March 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20060212090704/http:/www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9005334&contentId=7009881.

Climate Accountability Institute 2020, Climateaccountability.org, viewed 12 March 2021, https://climateaccountability.org/carbonmajors.html.

Ekwurzel, B, Boneham, Dalton, M, Heede, Mera, R, Allen, M & Frumhoff, P 2017, ‘The rise in global atmospheric CO2, surface temperature, and sea level from emissions traced to major carbon producers tracing emissions sourced from industrial carbon producers to specific climate impacts and furthers scientific and policy consideration of their historical responsibilities for climate change’, Climatic Change, vol. 144, pp. 579–590.

Global energy demand to plunge this year as a result of the biggest shock since the Second World War – News – IEA 2020, Global energy demand to plunge this year as a result of the biggest shock since the Second World War – News – IEA, IEA, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.iea.org/news/global-energy-demand-to-plunge-this-year-as-a-result-of-the-biggest-shock-since-the-second-world-war.

Guardian staff reporter 2015, World’s richest 10% produce half of global carbon emissions, says Oxfam, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/02/worlds-richest-10-produce-half-of-global-carbon-emissions-says-oxfam.

‘Invisible Oil’ From Deepwater Horizon Spill May Have Reached The Florida Keys 2020, WLRN, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.wlrn.org/news/2020-02-19/invisible-oil-from-deepwater-horizon-spill-may-have-reached-the-florida-keys.

Kaufman, M 2019, Since the first Earth Day, the planet’s CO2 levels have gone off the rails, Mashable, viewed 12 March 2021, https://mashable.com/article/earth-day-2019-climate-change-carbon-dioxide/.

Kaufman, M 2020, The devious fossil fuel propaganda we all use, Mashable, viewed 12 March 2021, https://mashable.com/feature/carbon-footprint-pr-campaign-sham/.

Taylor, M & Watts, J 2019, Revealed: the 20 firms behind a third of all carbon emissions, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/09/revealed-20-firms-third-carbon-emissions.

Liu, Z, Ciais, P, Deng, Z, Lei, R, Davis, SJ, Feng, S, Zheng, B, Cui, D, Dou, X, Zhu, B, Guo, R, Ke, P, Sun, T, Lu, C, He, P, Wang, Y, Yue, X, Wang, Y, Lei, Y & Zhou, H 2020, ‘Near-real-time monitoring of global CO2 emissions reveals the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic’, Nature Communications, vol. 11, no. 1, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18922-7.

Mazengarb, M 2020, ‘I spent more than that, and I’m not BP’: Cannon-Brookes challenges oil major to do more, RenewEconomy, viewed 12 March 2021, https://reneweconomy.com.au/i-spent-more-than-that-and-im-not-bp-cannon-brookes-challenges-oil-major-to-do-more-93019/.

Outdoor Brands Get Serious About the Carbon Footprint of Adventure 2020, Sierra Club, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/outdoor-brands-get-serious-about-carbon-footprint-adventure.

The best way to reduce your carbon footprint is one the government isn’t telling you about 2017, The best way to reduce your carbon footprint is one the government isn’t telling you about, Science | AAAS, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/07/best-way-reduce-your-carbon-footprint-one-government-isn-t-telling-you-about.

The New York Times 2021, ‘Footprint (Published 2008)’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/17/magazine/17wwln-safire-t.html.

The New York Times 2021, ‘How to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-reduce-your-carbon-footprint.

The New York Times 2021, ‘Opinion | Beyond Propaganda (Published 2006)’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/14/opinion/14kenney.html.

Wikipedia Contributors 2021, Montreal Protocol, Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, viewed 12 March 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocol.

Wikipedia Contributors 2021, Carbon footprint, Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, viewed 12 March 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint.

Wikipedia Contributors 2021, BP, Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, viewed 12 March 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP.

Wynes, S & Nicholas, KA 2017, ‘The climate mitigation gap: education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions’, Environmental Research Letters, vol. 12, no. 7, p. 074024, viewed 12 March 2021, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541.

BP Annual Reports

bp global 2020, Annual financial and operating information | Investors | Home, bp global, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/investors/results-and-reporting/annual-f-oi.html.

bp global 2017, Annual reporting archive | Investors | Home, bp global, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/investors/results-and-reporting/annual-report/annual-reporting-archive.html#tab_11.

BP Deepwater Horizon

bp global 2020, Renewables | Energy economics | Home, bp global, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/energy-outlook/demand-by-fuel/renewables.html.

Bousso, R 2018, BP Deepwater Horizon costs balloon to $65 billion, U.S., viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bp-deepwaterhorizon-idUSKBN1F50NL.

Bousso, R 2018, Big Oil spent 1 percent on green energy in 2018, U.S., viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oil-renewables-idUSKCN1NH004.

McFarlane, S 2020, BP Bets Future on Green Energy, but Investors Remain Wary, WSJ, The Wall Street Journal, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/bp-bets-future-on-green-energy-but-investors-remain-wary-11601402304.

The New York Times 2021, ‘BP Reports a Huge Loss and Vows to Increase Renewable Investment’, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/04/business/energy-environment/bp-renewable-investment.html.

Australian Carbon Footprint

Evaluating the significance of Australia’s global fossil fuel carbon footprint 2019, Climateanalytics.org, viewed 12 March 2021, https://climateanalytics.org/publications/2019/evaluating-the-significance-of-australias-global-fossil-fuel-carbon-footprint/.

Plastic Mostly Not Recycled

Parker, L 2018, Science, National Geographic, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/plastic-produced-recycling-waste-ocean-trash-debris-environment.

Pollution Prevention: Keep America Beautiful – Iron Eyes Cody (1961-1983) | ANA Educational Foundation 2019, ANA Educational Foundation, viewed 12 March 2021, https://aef.com/classroom-resources/social-responsibility/ad-council-campaigns-made-difference/pollution-prevention/.

Benjamic Franta, Climate Change Activist

2021, Nationalacademies.org, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2018/10/technologies-that-remove-carbon-dioxide-from-air-and-sequester-it-need-to-play-a-large-role-in-mitigating-climate-change-says-new-report.

2021, Twitter, viewed 12 March 2021, https://twitter.com/BenFranta.

Benjamin Franta – Stanford Law School – Stanford, California | LinkedIn 2019, Linkedin.com, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.linkedin.com/in/benjaminfranta.

Trillion Trees

Bastin, J-F, Finegold, Y, Garcia, C, Mollicone, D, Rezende, M, Routh, D, Zohner, CM & Crowther, TW 2019, ‘The global tree restoration potential’, Science, vol. 365, no. 6448, pp. 76–79, viewed 12 March 2021, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31273120/.

Bastin, J-F, Finegold, Y, Garcia, C, Gellie, N, Lowe, A, Mollicone, D, Rezende, M, Routh, D, Sacande, M, Sparrow, B, Zohner, CM & Crowther, TW 2019, ‘Response to Comments on “The global tree restoration potential”‘, Science, vol. 366, no. 6463, p. eaay8108, viewed 12 March 2021, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6463/eaay8108.

Can Planting Trees Solve Climate Change? – Legal Planet 2019, Legal Planet, viewed 12 March 2021, https://legal-planet.org/2019/07/05/can-planting-trees-solve-climate-change/.

CCC: One fifth of UK farmland must be used to tackle climate change | Carbon Brief 2020, Carbon Brief, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.carbonbrief.org/ccc-one-fifth-of-uk-farmland-must-be-used-to-tackle-climate-change.

Chazdon, R & Brancalion, P 2019, ‘Restoring forests as a means to many ends’, Science, vol. 365, no. 6448, pp. 24–25, viewed 12 March 2021, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/365/6448/24.

Crowther, T 2019, Understanding Carbon Cycle Feedbacks to Predict Climate Change, AAAS – 2019 Annual Meeting, AAAS, viewed 12 March 2021, https://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2019/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/23744.

Fagan, ME, Reid, JL, Holland, MB, Drew, JG & Zahawi, RA 2020, ‘How feasible are global forest restoration commitments?’, Conservation Letters, vol. 13, no. 3, viewed 12 March 2021, https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12700.

Friedlingstein, P, Allen, M, Canadell, JG, Peters, GP & Seneviratne, SI 2019, ‘Comment on “The global tree restoration potential”‘, Science, vol. 366, no. 6463, p. eaay8060, viewed 12 March 2021, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6463/eaay8060.abstract.

Guest Blogger 2019, Planting 1.2 trillion trees could cancel out a decade of CO2 emissions, scientists find – The Climate Center, The Climate Center, viewed 12 March 2021, https://theclimatecenter.org/planting-1-2-trillion-trees-could-cancel-out-a-decade-of-co2-emissions-scientists-find/.

Home | Trillion Trees 2021, Trilliontrees.org, viewed 12 March 2021, https://trilliontrees.org/home.

How trees could help to save the climate* 2019, Ethz.ch, viewed 12 March 2021, https://ethz.ch/en/news-and-events/eth-news/news/2019/07/how-trees-could-save-the-climate.html.

Katarina Zimmer 2019, Researchers Find Flaws in High-Profile Study on Trees and Climate, The Scientist Magazine®, The Scientist Magazine, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/researchers-find-flaws-in-high-profile-study-on-trees-and-climate–66587.

Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration 2019, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda.

Predicting climate change 2019, EurekAlert!, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-02/ez-pcc021119.php.

Song, L 2019, An (Even More) Inconvenient Truth: Why Carbon Credits For Forest Preservation May Be Worse Than Nothing, ProPublica, viewed 12 March 2021, https://features.propublica.org/brazil-carbon-offsets/inconvenient-truth-carbon-credits-dont-work-deforestation-redd-acre-cambodia/.

Temple, J 2019, Landowners are earning millions for carbon cuts that may not occur, MIT Technology Review, MIT Technology Review, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/04/18/65883/californias-cap-and-trade-program-may-vastly-overestimate-emissions-cuts/.

Temple, J 2020, ‘A Trillion Trees’ is a great idea—that could become a dangerous climate distraction, MIT Technology Review, MIT Technology Review, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/01/28/276052/tree-planting-is-a-great-idea-that-could-become-a-dangerous-climate-distraction/.

The Independent 2019, ‘Massive restoration of world’s forests would cancel out a decade of CO2 emissions, analysis suggests’, 18 February, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/forests-climate-change-co2-greenhouse-gases-trillion-trees-global-warming-a8782071.html.

Veldman, JW, Aleman, JC, Alvarado, ST, Anderson, TM, Archibald, S, Bond, WJ, Boutton, TW, Buchmann, N, Buisson, E, Canadell, JG, Dechoum, M de S, Diaz-Toribio, MH, Durigan, G, Ewel, JJ, Fernandes, GW, Fidelis, A, Fleischman, F, Good, SP, Griffith, DM & Hermann, J-M 2019, ‘Comment on “The global tree restoration potential”‘, Science, vol. 366, no. 6463, p. eaay7976, viewed 12 March 2021, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6463/eaay7976.

Goldenberg, S. (2013). Secret funding helped build vast network of climate denial thinktanks. The Guardian. [online] 15 Feb. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network [Accessed 6 Dec. 2020].

Goldenberg, S. (2013). Conservative groups spend up to $1bn a year to fight action on climate change. The Guardian. [online] 21 Dec. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change [Accessed 6 Dec. 2020].

Holden, E 2020, How the oil industry has spent billions to control the climate change conversation, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jan/08/oil-companies-climate-crisis-pr-spending.

Joshi, J 2021, Climate denial still features in fossil fuel-funded education materials, Renew Economy, viewed 5 February 2025, https://reneweconomy.com.au/climate-denial-still-features-in-fossil-fuel-funded-education-materials/.

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Stewart, R 2022, How much is Queensland’s bottom line powered by coal royalties?, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-27/qld-coal-royalties-bhp-cameron-dick-queensland-budget/101347686.

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PR Firms

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2020, Exxon, vs Tesla, NextEra

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Bob Ward, Royal Society

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Women in Royal Society

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Cover Up

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Esso-Atlantic Supertanker

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Exxon Knew in 1970s

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Goldenberg, S 2015, Exxon knew of climate change in 1981, email says – but it funded deniers for 27 more years, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 March 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/08/exxon-climate-change-1981-climate-denier-funding.

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CO2 Rate of Increase

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Foote, Eunice Newton

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Sky News and Denialism

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Grieve, C 2021, Big four banks forced to defend thermal coal exit, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 5 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/big-four-banks-forced-to-defend-thermal-coal-exit-20210517-p57soo.html.

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Transition, Stranded Assets

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Climate Illuminated

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Whaling – DAWE 2021, Awe.gov.au, viewed 21 December 2021, www.awe.gov.au/environment/marine/marine-species/cetaceans/whaling.

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McKenzie, J 2023, How wealthy countries evade responsibility for their fossil fuel exports, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, viewed 11 February 2025, https://thebulletin.org/2023/11/how-wealthy-countries-evade-responsibility-for-their-fossil-fuel-exports/.

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Fischedick M., J. Roy, A. Abdel-Aziz, A. Acquaye, J.M. Allwood, J.-P. Ceron, Y. Geng, H. Kheshgi, A. Lanza, D. Perczyk, L. Price,E. Santalla, C. Sheinbaum, and K. Tanaka, 2014: Industry. In:Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contri-bution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[Edenhofer,O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann,J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UnitedKingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Paddison, L 2021, How the rich are driving climate change, Bbc.com, BBC, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211025-climate-how-to-make-the-rich-pay-for-their-carbon-emissions.

Bakkaloglu et al., Methane emissions along biomethane and biogas supply chains are underestimated, One Earth(2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.05.012

Semra Bakkaloglu, Cooper, J & Hawkes, A 2022, ‘Methane emissions along biomethane and biogas supply chains are underestimated’, One Earth, vol. 5, Elsevier BV, no. 6, pp. 724–736, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/biogas,-biomethane-still-comes-with-a-hidden-climate-cost.

Fox, D, 2023, Methane may not warm the Earth quite as much as previously thought 2023, Science News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/methane-warm-earth-atmosphere-radiation.

Lawton, G, 2021, Methane is much worse than CO2 – here’s what we should do about it, New Scientist, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25233631-300-methane-is-much-worse-than-co2-heres-what-we-should-do-about-it/.

Collins, B 2020, World’s largest floating LNG factory remains in shutdown — at just three years old, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-21/worlds-largest-floating-lng-factory-remains-in-shutdown/12565490.

nature, ‘Curbing global warming could save US$20 trillion’ 2018, Nature, vol. 557, Nature Portfolio, no. 7706, pp. 467–468, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05219-5.

Wikipedia Contributors, Petroleum – Wikipedia 2024, Wikipedia.org, viewed 12 February 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum#Fossil_petroleum.

Bartholomeusz, S 2020, ‘Peak oil’ set to arrive sooner than we think if Biden wins, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/business/markets/peak-oil-set-to-arrive-sooner-than-we-think-if-biden-wins-20201103-p56b1w.html.

Fu, B, Li, B, Gasser, T, Tao, S, Philippe Ciais, Piao, S, Yves Balkanski, Li, W, Yin, T, Han, L, Han, Y, Peng, S & Xu, J 2021, ‘The contributions of individual countries and regions to the global radiative forcing’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 118, National Academy of Sciences, no. 15, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2018211118.

Curtin University, 2020, Supervolcano study finds CO2 emissions key to avoiding climate disasters 2022, Scimex, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/supervolcano-study-finds-co2-emissions-key-to-avoiding-climate-disasters.

Roberts, D 2020, What’s causing climate change, in 10 charts, Vox, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/21428525/climate-change-cause-charts-china-us-responsible.

Australian Government, Whaling – DCCEEW 2021, Dcceew.gov.au, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/marine/marine-species/cetaceans/whaling.

Gibney, E 2024, ‘Climate change has slowed Earth’s rotation — and could affect how we keep time’, Nature, vol. 628, Nature Portfolio, no. 8007, pp. 243–244, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00932-w.

Nunn, AS 2024, Global Warming Is Slowing the Earth’s Rotation, Scientific American, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/global-warming-is-slowing-the-earths-rotation/.

Agnew, DC 2024, ‘A global timekeeping problem postponed by global warming’, Nature, vol. 628, Nature Portfolio, no. 8007, pp. 333–336, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07170-0.

Johnston, H 2024, Climate change will affect how time is corrected using ‘negative leap seconds’ – Physics World, Physics World, viewed 12 February 2025, https://physicsworld.com/a/climate-change-will-affect-how-time-is-corrected-using-negative-leap-seconds/.

Tavella, P & Mitrovica, JX 2024, ‘Melting ice solves leap-second problem — for now’, Nature, vol. 628, Nature Portfolio, no. 8007, pp. 273–274, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00850-x.

The Economist 2024, Climate change is slowing Earth’s rotation, The Economist, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2024/04/24/climate-change-is-slowing-earths-rotation.

Deng, S, Liu, S, Mo, X, Jiang, L & P. Bauer‐Gottwein 2021, ‘Polar Drift in the 1990s Explained by Terrestrial Water Storage Changes’, Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 48, American Geophysical Union, no. 7, viewed 12 February 2025, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020gl092114.

Perkins, S, Climate change may have changed direction of the North Pole’s drift | Science News 2021, Science News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-change-north-pole-drift-direction-earth-axis.

Wehner, M & Wehner, M 2021, Earth is wobbling, and it’s probably our fault, BGR, viewed 12 February 2025, https://bgr.com/science/polar-drift-earth-axis-change/.

Vizcarra, N 2020, Crazy Bad Air | NASA Earthdata, NASA Earthdata, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/news/feature-articles/crazy-bad-air.

Douglas, Thomas & Turetsky, Merritt & Koven, Charles. (2020). Increased rainfall stimulates permafrost thaw across a variety of Interior Alaskan boreal ecosystems. npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. 3. 10.1038/s41612-020-0130-4.

University of Colorado 2020, Alaska is getting wetter. That’s bad news for permafrost and the climate, Phys.org, viewed 12 February 2025, https://phys.org/news/2020-07-alaska-wetter-bad-news-permafrost.html.

Berwyn, B 2023, In the Amazon, Indigenous and Locally Controlled Land Stores Carbon, but the Rest of the Rainforest Emits Greenhouse Gases – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16012023/rainforest-indigenous-peoples-carbon-sink/.

Cuadros, A 2023, Has the Amazon Reached Its ‘Tipping Point’?, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/04/magazine/amazon-tipping-point.html.

Denning, S 2021, ‘Southeast Amazonia is no longer a carbon sink’, Nature, vol. 595, Nature Portfolio, no. 7867, pp. 354–355, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01871-6.

McFall-Johnsen, M 2019, Amazon rainforest is about to reach a tipping point, experts warn, Business Insider, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-rainforest-reaching-tipping-point-deforestation-experts-warn-2019-12.

Wikipedia Contributors, Amazon rainforest – Wikipedia 2019, Wikipedia.org, viewed 12 February 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest#2019_fires.

Woodward, A 2019, Amazon rainforest deforestation and fires could turn it into savanna, Business Insider, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-rainforest-experiencing-record-breaking-deforestation-2019-7.

Burls, NJ 2024, ‘The surprising history of the Southern Ocean’s super current’, Nature, vol. 627, Nature Portfolio, no. 8005, pp. 740–741, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00678-5.

Lamy, F, Winckler, G, Arz, HW, Farmer, JR, Gottschalk, J, Lembke-Jene, L, Middleton, JL, van, Tiedemann, R, Zarikian, CA, Basak, C, Brombacher, A, Dumm, L, Esper, OM, Herbert, LC, Iwasaki, S, Kreps, G, Lawson, VJ, Lo, L & Malinverno, E 2024, ‘Five million years of Antarctic Circumpolar Current strength variability’, Nature, vol. 627, Nature Portfolio, no. 8005, pp. 789–796, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07143-3.

Taylor, DB 2020, Antarctica Sets Record High Temperature: 64.9 Degrees, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/08/climate/antarctica-record-temperature.html.

Berwyn, B 2022, ‘Where Thick Ice Sheets in Antarctica Meet the Ground, Small Changes Could Have Big Consequences – Inside Climate News’, Inside Climate News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/14092022/antarctica-ice-sheet.

Fountain, H 2022, Why Did the Larsen A and B Ice Shelves Fail? Scientists Say They Now Know., Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/14/climate/antarctic-ice-shelves-atmospheric-rivers.html.

Gilbert, E & Kittel, C 2021, ‘Surface Melt and Runoff on Antarctic Ice Shelves at 1.5°C, 2°C, and 4°C of Future Warming’, Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 48, American Geophysical Union, no. 8, viewed 12 February 2025, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020GL091733.

McCarthy, N 2021, Infographic: UN Recognizes New Antarctic Temperature Record, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/25229/record-high-temperatures-recorded-on-the-antarctic-continent/.

Porterfield, C 2021, One Of Antarctica’s Largest Ice Shelves Is About To Collapse, New Study Says, Forbes, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.forbes.com/sites/carlieporterfield/2021/04/28/one-of-antarcticas-largest-ice-shelves-is-about-to-collapse-new-study-says/.

Rafi Letzter 2021, A third of Antarctic ice shelves could collapse at current pace of warming, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/antarctic-ice-collapse.html.

Berwyn, B 2023, Scientists Report a Dramatic Drop in the Extent of Antarctic Sea Ice – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/06012023/antarctic-sea-ice-climate-change/.

Borenstein, S 2022, Hot poles: Antarctica, Arctic 70 and 50 degrees above normal, AP News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://apnews.com/article/climate-science-colorado-arctic-antarctica-eda9ea8704108bdab2480fa2cd4b6e34#:~:text=March%2018%2C%202022-,Earth’s%20poles%20are%20undergoing%20simultaneous%20freakish%20extreme%20heat%20with%20parts,degrees%20Celsius)%20warmer%20than%20average.

Borenstein, S 2022, Melting point: Temperatures soar in the Arctic, Antarctica, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/world/oceania/dramatic-hot-spells-leave-antarctica-arctic-40-and-30-degrees-above-normal-20220320-p5a68d.html.

Readfearn, G 2023, Antarctic sea ice shrinks to lowest annual maximum level on record, data shows, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/26/antarctic-sea-ice-shrinks-to-lowest-annual-maximum-level-on-record-data-shows.

Samenow, J & Patel, K 2022, It’s 70 degrees warmer than normal in eastern Antarctica. Scientists are flabbergasted., Washington Post, The Washington Post, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2022/03/18/antarctica-heat-wave-climate-change/.

Saunders, T, 2023, Antarctic ice deficit grows to size of Western Australia as 2023 shatters more climate records, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-08/climate-records-shattered-in-2023-ice-deficit-grows/102577168.

2020

Harvey, C 2020, Scientific American, Scientific American, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-new-arctic-is-emerging-thanks-to-climate-change/.

Landrum, L & Holland, MM 2020, ‘Extremes become routine in an emerging new Arctic’, Nature Climate Change, vol. 10, Nature Portfolio, no. 12, pp. 1108–1115, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0892-z.

L’Heureux, M, 2021, On the sudden stratospheric warming and polar vortex of early 2021 2021, NOAA Climate.gov, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/enso/sudden-stratospheric-warming-and-polar-vortex-early-2021.

McCarty, JL, Thomas & Turetsky, MR 2020, ‘Arctic fires re-emerging’, Nature Geoscience, vol. 13, Nature Portfolio, no. 10, pp. 658–660, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-020-00645-5.

Milman, O 2021, Heating Arctic may be to blame for snowstorms in Texas, scientists argue, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/feb/17/arctic-heating-winter-storms-climate-change.

Schweiger, AJ, Steele, M, Zhang, J, Moore, K & Laidre, KL 2021, ‘Accelerated sea ice loss in the Wandel Sea points to a change in the Arctic’s Last Ice Area’, Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 2, Nature Portfolio, no. 1, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00197-5.

Léonie Chao-Fong 2022, ‘Drastic’ rise in high Arctic lightning has scientists worried, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/07/lightning-high-arctic-rise-scientists-worried#:~:text=The%20high%20Arctic%20saw%20a,the%20previous%20nine%20years%20combined.

Simon, M, 2021, More lightning in the Arctic is bad news for the planet, Ars Technica, viewed 19 February 2025, https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/more-lightning-in-the-arctic-is-bad-news-for-the-planet/.

Zhang, P, Jeong, J-H, Yoon, J-H, Kim, H, Wang, S-Y . S, Linderholm, HW, Fang, K, Wu, X & Chen, D 2020, ‘Abrupt shift to hotter and drier climate over inner East Asia beyond the tipping point’, Science, vol. 370, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), no. 6520, pp. 1095–1099, viewed 18 February 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33243889/.

Zhang, Q-B & Fang, O 2020, ‘Tree rings circle an abrupt shift in climate’, Science, vol. 370, American Association for the Advancement of Science, no. 6520, pp. 1037–1038, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346650573_Tree_rings_circle_an_abrupt_shift_in_climate.

Coal Seam Gas

Khaled Al Khawaldeh 2023, Coal seam gas waste plan risks washing ‘5m tonnes of salt into the Murray-Darling Basin’, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/apr/08/coal-seam-gas-waste-plan-risks-washing-5m-tonnes-of-salt-into-the-murray-darling-basin#:~:text=1%20year%20old-,Coal%20seam%20gas%20waste%20plan%20risks%20washing%20’5m%20tonnes%20of,into%20the%20Murray%2DDarling%20Basin’&text=Local%20landholders%20and%20advocacy%20groups,contaminating%20the%20Murray%2DDarlin%20Basin.

Disasters

Robert Glasser, The science is clear so get used to extreme weather 2021, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/the-science-is-clear-so-get-used-to-extreme-weather-20210323-p57d4y.html.

Mangrove Deaths

Duke, N 2022, Climate change killed 40 million Australian mangroves in 2015. Here’s why they’ll probably never grow back, The Conversation, viewed 18 February 2025, https://theconversation.com/climate-change-killed-40-million-australian-mangroves-in-2015-heres-why-theyll-probably-never-grow-back-166971.

Overheating

Bureau of Meteorology, State of the Climate 2020: Bureau of Meteorology 2020, Bom.gov.au, corporateName=Bureau of Meteorology, viewed 18 February 2025, http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/2020/.

Foley, M 2021, UN’s ‘code red’ climate warning a burning issue for Australia’s fire risk, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/un-s-code-red-climate-warning-a-burning-issue-for-australia-s-fire-risk-20210814-p58irl.html.

Hartcher, P 2020, The ghost of Tony Abbott paralyses Canberra on climate action, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/the-ghost-of-tony-abbott-paralyses-canberra-on-climate-action-20201113-p56eh7.html.

Klekociuk, A, Bergstrom, DM, King, D & Robinson, S 2020, Anatomy of a heatwave: how Antarctica recorded a 20.75°C day last month, The Conversation, viewed 18 February 2025, https://theconversation.com/anatomy-of-a-heatwave-how-antarctica-recorded-a-20-75-c-day-last-month-134550.

Richter, F 2021, Infographic: July 2021 Was the Hottest Month on Record, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/25542/global-land-and-ocean-surface-temperature-anomalies-in-july/.

Rainfall due to Climate Change

Readfearn, G 2024, It’s not just the total rainfall – why is eastern Australia experiencing such sudden, devastating downpours?, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/jan/06/flash-flooding-cyclones-global-heating-australia-wild-weather#:~:text=But%20some%20climate%20scientists%20have,on%20to%20the%20eastern%20seaboard.

Rainforests Climate Change

Hannam, P 2021, From drying rainforests to heavier downpours, Australia’s climate is changing, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/from-drying-rainforests-to-heavier-downpours-australia-s-climate-is-changing-20210630-p585lh.html.

Chaudhary, C, Richardson, AJ, Schoeman, DS & Costello, MJ 2021, ‘Global warming is causing a more pronounced dip in marine species richness around the equator’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 118, National Academy of Sciences, no. 15, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2015094118.

Smoke, Components and Effects

Cassidy, C 2020, How to Escape From a Volcano Eruption, WIRED, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-escape-from-erupting-volcano/.

Fritz, A 2023, Why skies in the Northeast are turning orange from the smoke, CNN, viewed 18 February 2025, https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/08/weather/orange-sky-smoke-explained/index.html#:~:text=Wildfire%20smoke%20blocks%20the%20shorter,and%20orange%20to%20pass%20through.&text=This%20effect%20is%20even%20more,is%20low%20in%20the%20sky.

McNeill, VF & Thornton, JA 2023, ‘How wildfires deplete ozone in the stratosphere’, Nature, vol. 615, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, no. 7951, pp. 219–221, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00598-w.

Simon, M 2020, What’s in Wildfire Smoke, and How Dangerous Is It?, WIRED, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/whats-in-wildfire-smoke-and-how-dangerous-is-it/.

CO2 Emissions

Gramling, C, 2021, Australia’s 2019-2020 fires had surprisingly wide-reaching impact | Science News 2021, Science News, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/australia-wildfires-climate-change-carbon-dioxide-ocean-algae.

van, I van, W, Houweling, S, Maasakkers, JD, Borsdorff, T, Landgraf, J, Tol, P, Tim, Hees, R van, Hoogeveen, R, J. Pepijn Veefkind & Aben, I 2021, ‘Vast CO2 release from Australian fires in 2019–2020 constrained by satellite’, Nature, vol. 597, Nature Portfolio, no. 7876, pp. 366–369, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03712-y#:~:text=Using%20the%20five%20posterior%20CO,be%20715%20Tg%20CO2.

Vaughan, A 2021, 2021’s extraordinary wildfires have released a record amount of CO2, New Scientist, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.newscientist.com/article/2287465-2021s-extraordinary-wildfires-have-released-a-record-amount-of-co2/.

Tang, W, Llort, J, Weis, J, Perron, G, Basart, S, Li, Z, Shubha Sathyendranath, Jackson, T, Rodriguez, ES, Proemse, BC, Bowie, AR, Schallenberg, C, Strutton, PG, Matear, R & Cassar, N 2021, ‘Widespread phytoplankton blooms triggered by 2019–2020 Australian wildfires’, Nature, vol. 597, Nature Portfolio, no. 7876, pp. 370–375, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03805-8.

Other Effects

Gramling, C, 2021, Australia’s 2019-2020 fires had surprisingly wide-reaching impact | Science News 2021, Science News, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/australia-wildfires-climate-change-carbon-dioxide-ocean-algae.

Mallapaty, S, 2021, ‘Australian bush fires belched out immense quantity of carbon’, Nature, vol. 597, Nature Portfolio, no. 7877, pp. 459–460, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02509-3.

Smith, B 2021, Black Summer bushfires triggered Southern Ocean algal blooms bigger than Australia, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-09-16/black-summer-bushfires-smoke-iron-algae-bloom-phytoplankton/100460218.

Canada 2023

Bartels, M & Thompson, A 2023, How Long Will Wildfire Smoke Last, and Where Will It Spread?, Scientific American, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-will-wildfire-smoke-last-and-where-will-it-spread/.

Bilefsky, D, Stack, L & Vjosa Isai 2023, Quebec Wildfires Contribute to Extreme Fire Season in Canada, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/07/world/americas/canada-wildfires.html.

Cecco, L 2023, Canada battles hundreds of wildfires as smoke still chokes major cities, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/08/canada-wildfires-air-quality-preparedness.

Krugman, P 2023, Opinion | Orange Skies, Red Alerts and the Future, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/08/opinion/wildfires-smoke-climate-crisis.html.

Marr, L 2023, Opinion | From Wildfire Smoke to Covid, Air Quality Is the Issue of Our Time, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/07/opinion/wildfire-smoke-air-quality-viruses.html.

Milman, O 2023, Air pollution in US from wildfire smoke is worst in recent recorded history, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/08/air-quality-record-smoke-hazard-wildfire-worst-day-ever-canada-new-york.

Wallace-Wells, D 2023, Opinion | As Canadian Smoke Darkens the New York Sky, The Future is Clear, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/07/opinion/smoke-air-quality-new-york-canada.html.

Whitt, KK 2023, Canadian wildfire smoke turns US skies orange, EarthSky | Updates on your cosmos and world, viewed 18 February 2025, https://earthsky.org/earth/canadian-wildfire-smoke-north-and-northeastern-us-air-quality-alert/.

Europe

Fleck, A 2023, Infographic: Wildfires Ravage Southern Europe, Statista Daily Data, Statista, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.statista.com/chart/30726/cumulative-area-of-wildfires-in-mediterranean-basin/.

Siberia

Metcalfe, T 2021, Siberian wildfires dwarf all others on Earth combined, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/siberian-wildfire-smoke-reaches-north-pole.html.

Noor, D 2020, RIP: Canada’s Last Ice Shelf Has Collapsed, Gizmodo, viewed 18 February 2025, https://gizmodo.com/rip-canadas-last-ice-shelf-has-collapsed-1844647722.

Patar, D, 2025, Nunavut’s Eureka Weather Station experiences warmest July on record, Nunatsiaq News, viewed 18 February 2025, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/nunavuts-eureka-weather-station-experiences-warmest-july-on-record/.

Dupré, MH 2024, Plants and Forests Absorbed Almost No Carbon Last Year, Shocking Climate Scientists, Futurism, viewed 18 February 2025, https://futurism.com/the-byte/forests-absorbed-almost-no-carbon.

Greenfield, P 2024, Trees and land absorbed almost no CO2 last year. Is nature’s carbon sink failing?, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/oct/14/nature-carbon-sink-collapse-global-heating-models-emissions-targets-evidence-aoe.

Pan, Y, Birdsey, RA, Phillips, OL, Houghton, RA, Fang, J, Kauppi, PE, Keith, H, Kurz, WA, Ito, A, Lewis, SL, Gert-Jan Nabuurs, Anatoly Shvidenko, Hashimoto, S, Bas Lerink, Dmitry Schepaschenko, Castanho, A & Murdiyarso, D 2024, ‘The enduring world forest carbon sink’, Nature, vol. 631, Nature Portfolio, no. 8021, pp. 563–569, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07602-x.

Kintisch, E 2018, ‘Rooftop sensors on U.S. embassies are warning the world about “crazy bad” air pollution’, Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.science.org/content/article/rooftop-sensors-us-embassies-are-warning-world-about-crazy-bad-air-pollution.

Fischetti, M 2021, We Are Living in a Climate Emergency, and We’re Going to Say So, Scientific American, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/we-are-living-in-a-climate-emergency-and-were-going-to-say-so/.

Gaskill, M 2016, 9 Alarming Facts About Coral Reef Bleaching, Mental Floss, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/81347/9-alarming-facts-about-coral-reef-bleaching.

Readfearn, G 2020, Great Barrier Reef’s third mass bleaching in five years the most widespread yet, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/07/great-barrier-reefs-third-mass-bleaching-in-five-years-the-most-widespread-ever.

Hannam, P 2020, Warragamba wall-raising costs to ‘blow out’ after height level lifted, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/warragamba-wall-raising-costs-to-blow-out-after-height-level-lifted-20200805-p55iqq.html.

Shepherd, D 2021, Climate change: 2021’s 10 worst climate disasters cost $U170b, Australian Financial Review, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.afr.com/policy/energy-and-climate/the-cost-of-2021-s-10-worst-climate-disasters-u170b-20211227-p59kbn.

Piesing, M 2019, The deepest hole we have ever dug, Bbc.com, BBC, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190503-the-deepest-hole-we-have-ever-dug.

Rojanasakul, M 2023, Extreme Rain and Drought Is Happening More Often, New Research Shows, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/03/14/climate/extreme-weather-climate-change.html.

Nature Publishing Group, 2022, Assessment of storm surges in Europe since 1960 suggests likelihood of rising sea levels, Phys.org, viewed 19 February 2025, https://phys.org/news/2022-03-storm-surges-europe-likelihood-sea.html.

Calafat, FM, Wahl, T, Tadesse, MG & Sparrow, SN 2022, ‘Trends in Europe storm surge extremes match the rate of sea-level rise’, Nature, vol. 603, Nature Portfolio, no. 7903, pp. 841–845, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04426-5.

Clarke, B, Otto, F, Stuart-Smith, R & Harrington, L 2022, ‘Extreme weather impacts of climate change: an attribution perspective’, Environmental Research Climate, vol. 1, IOP Publishing, no. 1, pp. 012001–012001, viewed 19 February 2025, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5295/ac6e7d.

Coady, D, Parry, I, Le, NP & Shang, B, 2019, Global Fossil Fuel Subsidies Remain Large: An Update Based on Country-Level Estimates 2019, IMF, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2019/05/02/Global-Fossil-Fuel-Subsidies-Remain-Large-An-Update-Based-on-Country-Level-Estimates-46509.

Hutchinson, S 2021, Gonski’s doorknocking dilemma, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/national/gonski-s-doorknocking-dilemma-20210616-p581mj.html.

Moss, J, 2020, Matt Canavan says Australia doesn’t subsidise the fossil fuel industry, an expert says it does 2020, UNSW Sites, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.unsw.edu.au/newsroom/news/2020/06/matt-canavan-says-australia-doesn-t-subsidise-the-fossil-fuel-in.

Hannam, P 2021, Climate change drives down oxygen levels in lakes worldwide, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/climate-change-drives-down-oxygen-levels-in-lakes-worldwide-20210602-p57xgt.html.

Romain, H, McNabb, R, Etienne Berthier, Menounos, B, Nuth, C, Girod, L, Farinotti, D, Huss, M, Dussaillant, I, Brun, F & Kääb, A 2021, ‘Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century’, Nature, vol. 592, Nature Portfolio, no. 7856, pp. 726–731, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03436-z.

Watts, J & Niko Kommenda 2021, Speed at which world’s glaciers are melting has doubled in 20 years, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/28/speed-at-which-worlds-glaciers-are-melting-has-doubled-in-20-years.

Aschwanden, A, 2020, ‘The worst is yet to come for the Greenland ice sheet’, Nature, vol. 586, Nature Portfolio, no. 7827, pp. 29–30, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02700-y.

Berwyn, B 2020, Going, Going… Gone: Greenland’s Melting Ice Sheet Passed a Point of No Return in the Early 2000s – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/15082020/greenland-ice-sheet-melt-climate-change/.

Borenstein, S 2020, All-time record melt: Greenland loses 532 billion tonnes of ice, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/all-time-record-melt-greenland-loses-532-billion-tonnes-of-ice-20200821-p55o28.html.

Briner, J, By 2100, Greenland will lose ice faster than it has in 12,000 years | Science News 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/greenland-ice-sheet-melt-sea-level-rise-climate-change.

Briner, JP, Cuzzone, JK, Badgeley, JA, Young, NE, Steig, EJ, Mathieu Morlighem, Schlegel, N-J, Hakim, GJ, Schaefer, JM, Johnson, JV, Lesnek, AJ, Thomas, EK, Allan, E, Ole Bennike, Cluett, AA, Csatho, B, Vernal, A de, Downs, J, Larour, E & Nowicki, S 2020, ‘Rate of mass loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet will exceed Holocene values this century’, Nature, vol. 586, Nature Portfolio, no. 7827, pp. 70–74, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2742-6.

Fountain, H 2021, Rain Showers in Greenland Point to Climate Change, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/20/climate/greenland-rain-ice-sheet.html.

Ingrosso, G, Ceccarelli, C, Giglio, F, Giordano, P, Hefter, J, Langone, L, Stefano Miserocchi, Mollenhauer, G, Alessio Nogarotto, Sabino, M & Tesi, T 2025, ‘Greening of Svalbard in the twentieth century driven by sea ice loss and glaciers retreat’, Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 6, Nature Portfolio, no. 1, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-01994-y.

Kilvert, N 2023, Ice core from secret US Army base reveals dramatic historical Greenland ice-sheet melting, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2023-07-21/greenland-ice-core-secret-us-army-base-reveals-dramatic-melting/102609654.

McFall-Johnsen, M, 2020, Greenland’s Melting Ice Sheet Has ‘Passed The Point of No Return’, Scientists Say, ScienceAlert, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencealert.com/greenland-s-melting-ice-sheet-has-passed-the-point-of-no-return-scientists-say.

Mohajerani, Y 2020, ‘Record Greenland mass loss’, Nature Climate Change, vol. 10, Nature Portfolio, no. 9, pp. 803–804, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0887-9.

Ohio State News, 2020, Warming Greenland ice sheet passes point of no return, Warming Greenland ice sheet passes point of no return, The Ohio State University, viewed 19 February 2025, https://news.osu.edu/warming-greenland-ice-sheet-passes-point-of-no-return/.

Sasgen, I, Wouters, B, Gardner, AS, King, MD, Tedesco, M, Landerer, FW, Dahle, C, Save, H & Fettweis, X 2020, ‘Return to rapid ice loss in Greenland and record loss in 2019 detected by the GRACE-FO satellites’, Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 1, Nature Portfolio, no. 1, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-020-0010-1.

Snowden, S 2020, Melting Of Greenland’s Ice Sheets Has Passed The Point Of No Return, Scientists Say, Forbes, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottsnowden/2020/08/14/greenlands-melting-ice-sheets/.

Snowden, S 2020, Projected Future Melt Of The Greenland Ice Sheet May Be Underestimated By Half, Forbes, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottsnowden/2020/04/15/melt-of-greenland-ice-sheet-underestimated/.

Thompson, B & Shamini Bundell 2020, ‘Greenland’s ice will melt faster than any time in the past 12,000 years’, Nature, Nature Portfolio, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02784-6.

Young, LJ 2022, Satellite images of Las Vegas show just how extreme urban heat islands can get, Popular Science, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.popsci.com/environment/southwest-las-vegas-heat-map-nasa/.

Bossons, M 2022, Opinion | What My Family and I Saw When We Were Trapped in China’s Heat Wave, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/09/opinion/international-world/china-heat-climate.html.

Irfan, U 2022, The extraordinary heat wave in India and Pakistan, explained, Vox, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.vox.com/23057267/india-pakistan-heat-wave-climate-change-coal-south-asia.

Touma, R 2024, Dew point and sticky sweat: why humidity is so uncomfortable, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/jan/21/dew-point-and-sticky-sweat-why-humidity-is-so-uncomfortable.

Fountain, H 2021, Here’s How Ida Quickly Strengthened Into a Monster, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/29/climate/hurricane-ida-category.html.

Penney, V 2021, What We Know About Climate Change and Hurricanes, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/29/climate/climate-change-hurricanes.html.

Arctic vs Antarctic

NASA 2023,Arctic Sea Ice Minimum | NASA Global Climate Change, Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet, viewed 19 February 2025, https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/.

NSIDC, Quick facts, basic science, and information about snow, ice, and why the cryosphere matters, 2025, National Snow and Ice Data Center, viewed 19 February 2025, https://nsidc.org/learn.

NSIDC, Sea Ice Today 2025, National Snow and Ice Data Center, viewed 19 February 2025, https://nsidc.org/sea-ice-today.

Global Ice Viewer

NASA, Global Ice Viewer – Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet 2025, Nasa.gov, viewed 19 February 2025, https://climate.nasa.gov/interactives/global-ice-viewer/.

Berwyn, B 2021, Global Ice Loss on Pace to Drive Worst-Case Sea Level Rise – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/25012021/global-ice-loss-sea-level-rise/.

Mooney, C 2019, Greenland’s ice losses have septupled and are now in line with its highest sea-level scenario, scientists say, Washington Post, The Washington Post, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2019/12/10/greenland-ice-losses-have-septupled-are-pace-sea-level-worst-case-scenario-scientists-say/.

Mooney, C & Freedman, A, 2021, Earth is now losing 1.2 trillion tons of ice each year. And it’s going to get worse., Washington Post, The Washington Post, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/01/25/ice-melt-quickens-greenland-glaciers/.

Pappas, S 2021, Vanishing ice is warping Earth’s crust, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/melting-ice-warps-earth-crust.

Slater, T, Lawrence, IR, Otosaka, IN, Shepherd, A, Gourmelen, N, Jakob, L, Tepes, P, Gilbert, L & Nienow, P 2021, ‘Review article: Earth’s ice imbalance’, The Cryosphere, vol. 15, Copernicus GmbH, no. 1, pp. 233–246, viewed 19 February 2025, https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/15/233/2021/.

Bernath, P, Boone, C & Crouse, J 2022, ‘Wildfire smoke destroys stratospheric ozone’, Science, vol. 375, American Association for the Advancement of Science, no. 6586, pp. 1292–1295, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm5611.

Fasullo, JT, Rosenbloom, N & Buchholz, R 2023, ‘A multiyear tropical Pacific cooling response to recent Australian wildfires in CESM2’, Science Advances, vol. 9, American Association for the Advancement of Science, no. 19, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adg1213.

Jacobson, P 2023, Australia bushfires may have caused global climate phenomenon La Niña: Study, Mongabay Environmental News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/australia-bushfires-may-have-caused-global-climate-phenomenon-la-nina-study/.

Jones, N 2022, ‘Rare “triple” La Niña climate event looks likely — what does the future hold?’, Nature, vol. 607, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, no. 7917, pp. 21–21, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01668-1.

Logan, T, 2023, Black Summer bushfires may have influenced the onset of rare triple-dip La Niña, study finds, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-11/black-summer-bushfires-la-nina-link-found/102196030.

Lu, D 2023, Black summer bushfires may have caused rare ‘triple dip’ La Niña, study suggests, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/11/black-summer-bushfires-may-have-caused-rare-triple-dip-la-nina-study-suggests#:~:text=Modelling%20from%20scientists%20at%20the,south%2Deastern%20subtropical%20Pacific%20Ocean.&text=This%20created%20favourable%20conditions%20for,to%20form%2C%20the%20researchers%20believe.

Nature Publishing Group, 2022, Bushfires may be a bigger global socioeconomic risk in the coming decades, Phys.org, viewed 19 February 2025, https://phys.org/news/2022-03-bushfires-bigger-global-socioeconomic-decades.html.

Simon, M 2020, Watch Australia’s Wildfires Spawn Massive Smoky Thunderclouds, WIRED, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/australia-wildfires-smoky-thunderclouds/.

Simon, M 2023, The Weird Way Australia’s Bushfires Influenced a Weirder La Niña, WIRED, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/the-weird-way-australias-bushfires-influenced-a-weirder-la-nina/.

Yu, Y, Mao, J, Wullschleger, SD, Chen, A, Shi, X, Wang, Y, Hoffman, FM, Zhang, Y & Pierce, E 2022, ‘Machine learning–based observation-constrained projections reveal elevated global socioeconomic risks from wildfire’, Nature Communications, vol. 13, Nature Portfolio, no. 1, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28853-0.

PHL, 2011, Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth, Upr.edu, viewed 19 February 2025, https://phl.upr.edu/library/labnotes/distribution-of-landmasses-of-the-paleo-earth.

Ogasa, N, 2023, An incendiary form of lightning may surge under climate change 2023, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/hot-lightning-strike-wildfire-spark-risk-climate-change#:~:text=Each%201%20degree%20Celsius%20of,times%20per%20second%20in%202011.

Rubin, AJ & Denton, B 2023, A Climate Warning from the Cradle of Civilization, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/29/world/middleeast/iraq-water-crisis-desertification.html.

Climate Change

Tokyo Metropolitan University, Wetter than wet: global warming means more rain for Asian monsoon regions 2020, Preventionweb.net, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.preventionweb.net/news/wetter-wet-global-warming-means-more-rain-asian-monsoon-regions.

Get Stronger with Warming

Schwartz, J 2021, A Million Years of Data Confirms: Monsoons Are Likely to Get Worse, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/04/climate/monsoons-climate-change.html.

Beasley, R 2021, Murray-Darling Basin summit a laughable response to finding of gross negligence, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/national/murray-darling-basin-summit-a-laughable-response-to-finding-of-gross-negligence-20210318-p57brq.html.

Ellfeldt, A 2020, Scientific American, Scientific American, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mounting-climate-impacts-threaten-u-s-nuclear-reactors/.

Acidification

Lindsey, R, 2024, Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide 2024, NOAA Climate.gov, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide.

Biomass

Bar-On, YM & Milo, R 2019, ‘The Biomass Composition of the Oceans: A Blueprint of Our Blue Planet’, Cell, vol. 179, Cell Press, no. 7, pp. 1451–1454, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867419312747.

Currents Change

Hannam, P 2021, World’s oceans changing as currents show new patterns, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/world-s-oceans-changing-as-currents-show-new-patterns-20210422-p57lcw.html.

Dead Zones in Past Heating

Stephens, T, 2021, Dead zones formed repeatedly in North Pacific during warm climates, study finds 2021, UC Santa Cruz News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://news.ucsc.edu/2021/06/dead-zones.html.

Heat Absorption

Abraham, J 2022, We study ocean temperatures. The Earth just broke a heat increase record, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/jan/11/ocean-temperatures-earth-heat-increase-record.

Berwyn, B 2023, Relentless Rise of Ocean Heat Content Drives Deadly Extremes – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/11012023/relentless-rise-of-ocean-heat-content-drives-deadly-extremes/.

Cheng, L, Abraham, J, Trenberth, KE, Fasullo, J, Boyer, T, Mann, ME, Zhu, J, Wang, F, Locarnini, R, Li, Y, Zhang, B, Tan, Z, Yu, F, Wan, L, Chen, X, Song, X, Liu, Y, Franco Reseghetti, Simoncelli, S & Viktor Gouretski 2022, ‘Another Record: Ocean Warming Continues through 2021 despite La Niña Conditions’, Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 39, Springer Science+Business Media, no. 3, pp. 373–385, viewed 19 February 2025, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-022-1461-3.

Chung, L 2022, Ocean temperatures set heat records, raising fresh concerns for marine life, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/ocean-temperatures-set-heat-records-raising-fresh-concerns-for-marine-life-20220112-p59nmd.html.

Gramling, C, 2022, The past’s extreme ocean heat waves are now the new normal 2022, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ocean-extreme-heat-wave-past-climate-new-normal.

McKenzie, J 2023, Ocean temperatures are a key indicator of global warming. They were hotter than ever recorded last year, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, viewed 19 February 2025, https://thebulletin.org/2023/01/ocean-temperatures-are-a-key-indicator-of-global-warming-they-were-hotter-than-ever-recorded-last-year/.

Simon, M 2022, Extreme Heat in the Oceans Is Out of Control, WIRED, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/extreme-heat-in-the-oceans-is-out-of-control/.

Trenberth, K 2022, Ocean heat is at record levels, with major consequences, The Conversation, viewed 19 February 2025, https://theconversation.com/ocean-heat-is-at-record-levels-with-major-consequences-174760.

You, X 2024, ‘Oceans break heat records five years in a row’, Nature, vol. 625, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, no. 7995, pp. 434–435, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00081-0.

Heating 5C

Fountain, H 2020, Ocean Heat Waves Are Directly Linked to Climate Change, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/24/climate/ocean-heat-waves-blob.html.

Laufkötter, C, Jakob Zscheischler & Frölicher, TL 2020, ‘High-impact marine heatwaves attributable to human-induced global warming’, Science, vol. 369, American Association for the Advancement of Science, no. 6511, pp. 1621–1625, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba0690.

Readfearn, G 2022, ‘Extreme marine heatwave’: waters off Sydney set to break January temperature records, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/05/extreme-marine-heatwave-waters-off-sydney-set-to-break-january-temperature-records.

Wikipedia Contributors, 2019, Marine Heatwave, Wikipedia.org, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., viewed 19 February 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_heatwave.

You, X 2024, ‘Oceans break heat records five years in a row’, Nature, vol. 625, Nature Portfolio, no. 7995, pp. 434–435, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00081-0.

Ocean Levels Rise

Drollette, D, 2024, ‘Figuring out the most realistic projections for sea-level rise: Interview with glaciologist Rob DeConto’ 2024, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.2024.2364500.

Institute for Basic Science South Korea, ‘Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets set to cause major sea level rise above 1.8 degrees of warming’ 2023, Scimex, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/antarctic-and-greenland-ice-sheets-set-to-cause-major-sea-level-rise-above-1-8-degrees-of-warming.

McDonald, B, Kim, C, Bermudez, A & Nunez, C, 2021, Rebuild or Leave ‘Paradise’: Climate Change Dilemma Facing a Nicaraguan Coastal Town, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/video/world/americas/100000007494833/nicaragua-hurricane-eta-iota.html.

Milman, O 2020, Greenland’s melting ice raised global sea level by 2.2mm in two months, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/mar/19/greenland-ice-melt-sea-level-rise-climate-crisis.

Park, J-Y, Schloesser, F, Timmermann, A, Choudhury, D, Lee, J-Y & Arjun Babu Nellikkattil 2023, ‘Future sea-level projections with a coupled atmosphere-ocean-ice-sheet model’, Nature Communications, vol. 14, Nature Portfolio, no. 1, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-36051-9.

Pierre-Louis, K 2021, How rising groundwater caused by climate change could devastate coastal communities, MIT Technology Review, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/12/13/1041309/climate-change-rising-groundwater-flooding/.

Staff, S 2022, New Predictions Reveal The Fate of The World’s Biggest Ice Sheet if We Don’t Act, ScienceAlert, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencealert.com/what-happens-to-the-sleeping-giant-east-antarctic-ice-sheet-is-up-to-us-says-researchers.

Velicogna, I, Yara Mohajerani, Geruo A, Landerer, F, Jeremie Mouginot, Noel, B, Rignot, E, Sutterley, T, van, Melchior van Wessem & Wiese, D 2020, ‘Continuity of Ice Sheet Mass Loss in Greenland and Antarctica From the GRACE and GRACE Follow‐On Missions’, Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 47, American Geophysical Union, no. 8, viewed 19 February 2025, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020GL087291.

Ocean Life Migration from Equator

Moon 2021, A new report suggests sea creatures are fleeing the equator!, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/apr/09/a-new-report-suggests-sea-creatures-are-fleeing-the-equator.

Rise of Phytoplankton, Mucus

Tansel, S 2021, An outbreak of ‘sea snot’ is killing Turkey’s fishing industry, Climate Home News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.climatechangenews.com/2021/06/18/outbreak-sea-snot-killing-turkeys-fishing-industry/.

Land Areas

Gramling, C, 2020, Death Valley hits 130° F, the hottest recorded temperature since 1931 | Science News 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/death-valley-hottest-recorded-temperature-earth.

Lee, J, 2020, Hurricanes have names. Some climate experts say heat waves should too | Science News 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/hurricanes-names-heat-waves-climate-health.

Lustgarten, A 2020, The Great Climate Migration Has Begun, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/23/magazine/climate-migration.html.

Marill, MC 2019, How Extreme Heat Overwhelms Your Body and Becomes Deadly, WIRED, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/how-extreme-heat-overwhelms-your-body-and-becomes-deadly/.

Xu, C, Kohler, TA, Lenton, TM, Svenning, J-C & Scheffer, M 2020, ‘Future of the human climate niche’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, no. 21, pp. 11350–11355, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1910114117.

Oz Oceans

Foley, M 2020, Marine heatwave early warning system for aquaculture industry, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/marine-heatwave-early-warning-system-for-aquaculture-industry-20200820-p55np5.html.

Wilson, R 2020, The future is fertile: how Australian innovation could save farming, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/national/the-future-is-fertile-how-australian-innovation-could-save-farming-20200207-p53yph.html.

Dye, J 2021, La Nina’s final fury, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/nsw/la-nina-s-final-fury-20210427-p57mvj.html.

Australian Associated Press, 2020, Australian heatwave: Canberra and Penrith smash temperature records that stood for 80 years, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jan/04/australian-weather-canberra-and-penrith-smash-temperature-records-that-stood-for-80-years.

Rawsthorne, S 2020, ‘Hottest place on the planet’: Penrith in Sydney’s west approaches 50 degrees, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/environment/weather/hottest-place-on-the-planet-penrith-in-sydney-s-west-tops-48-degrees-20200104-p53osu.html.

SBS News, 2020, Sydney’s Penrith the hottest place on Earth amid devastating bushfires, SBS News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/sydneys-penrith-the-hottest-place-on-earth-amid-devastating-bushfires/zrxrj54sw.

Nield, D 2024, The Polar Vortex Has Shifted Into Reverse – And Is Now Spinning Backwards, ScienceAlert, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencealert.com/the-polar-vortex-has-shifted-into-reverse-and-is-now-spinning-backwards.

Simon, M 2021, Oh Good, Now There’s an Outbreak of Wildfire Thunderclouds, WIRED, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/oh-good-now-theres-an-outbreak-of-wildfire-thunderclouds/.

Wu, H, Su, X & Singh, VP 2023, ‘Increasing Risks of Future Compound Climate Extremes With Warming Over Global Land Masses’, Earth’s Future, vol. 11, American Geophysical Union, no. 9, viewed 19 February 2025, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022EF003466.

Ombadi, M, 2023, ‘Global warming intensifies rainfall in mountainous regions’ 2023, Nature, Nature Portfolio, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02001-0.

Bartels, M 2023, Humans Have Crossed 6 of 9 ‘Planetary Boundaries’, Scientific American, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/humans-have-crossed-6-of-9-planetary-boundaries/.

Carrington, D 2023, Earth ‘well outside safe operating space for humanity’, scientists find, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/sep/13/earth-well-outside-safe-operating-space-for-humanity-scientists-find.

Branch, J 2022, What Climate Change Could Mean for Fog in the San Francisco Bay Area, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/09/14/climate/san-francisco-fog.html.

Gramling, C, 2020, 4 ways to put the 100-degree Arctic heat record in context 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-new-high-temperature-heat-record-arctic-siberia-context.

Grambling, C, 2020, A Siberian town hit 100 degrees, setting a new record for the Arctic Circle 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/siberia-verkhoyansk-record-heat-wave-arctic-circle.

Gramling, C, 2020, Climate change made Siberian heat wave at least 600 times more likely | Science News 2020, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-change-siberia-heat-wave-more-likely-global-warming-arctic.

Gramling, C, 2023, What’s driving an increasing number of hurricanes to rapidly intensify? 2023, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/increasing-number-hurricane-rapidly-intensify.

Harvey, C 2020, Scientific American, Scientific American, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/recipe-for-a-busy-hurricane-season-warmer-water-cleaner-air/.

Kossin, JP, Knapp, KR, Olander, TL & Velden, CS 2020, ‘Global increase in major tropical cyclone exceedance probability over the past four decades’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, National Academy of Sciences, no. 22, pp. 11975–11980, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1920849117.

Thompson, A 2020, A Running List of Record-Breaking Natural Disasters in 2020, Scientific American, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-running-list-of-record-breaking-natural-disasters-in-2020/.

Thompson, A 2020, Storm Surge: The Science behind This Year’s Unusual Hurricane Season, Scientific American, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/storm-surge-the-science-behind-this-years-unusual-hurricane-season1/.

The Engineering Toolbox, 2003, Specific Heat of common Substances, Engineeringtoolbox.com, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-heat-capacity-d_391.html.

Aguis, M, ‘No Nino’, but IOD will also drive dry Australian spring and summer 2023, Cosmos, viewed 12 February 2025, https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-no-nino-yet-but-another-climate-influence-will-positively-happen/.

AAP, ‘Red alert’ to world as every major climate record busted 2024, Thenewdaily.com.au, viewed 12 February 2025, .

Berwyn, B 2022, Scientists Say Pakistan’s Extreme Rains Were Intensified by Global Warming – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16092022/scientists-say-pakistans-extreme-rains-were-intensified-by-global-warming/#:~:text=An%20international%20team%20of%20climate,by%20human%2Dcaused%20global%20warming.

Carrington, D 2023, Too late now to save Arctic summer ice, climate scientists find, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/06/too-late-now-to-save-arctic-summer-ice-climate-scientists-find.

Cuff, M 2023, ‘The past week was the hottest ever recorded on Earth’, New Scientist, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.newscientist.com/article/2381532-the-past-week-was-the-hottest-ever-recorded-on-earth/.

Delger Erdenesanaa 2024, Ocean Heat Has Shattered Records for More Than a Year. What’s Happening?, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/10/climate/ocean-heat-records.html.

Einhorn, C 2024, Scientists Predict Most Extensive Coral Bleaching Event on Record, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/15/climate/coral-reefs-bleaching.html.

Fountain, H & Rojanasakul, M 2023, Earth’s Last 8 Years Were the Hottest on Record, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/climate/earth-hottest-years.html.

Gabay, A, 2023, This was the hottest summer ever recorded on Earth, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/planet-earth/climate-change/this-was-the-hottest-summer-ever-recorded-on-earth.

Gayle, D 2023, Tuesday was world’s hottest day on record – breaking Monday’s record, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/05/tuesday-was-worlds-hottest-day-on-record-breaking-mondays-record.

Howard, H 2023, Why Smaller Storms Are Growing More Fearsome, More Often, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/30/nyregion/climate-change-flooding-storms.html.

Mathis, W & Clark, A 2023, The World Recorded Its Hottest Days Ever This Week, Bloomberg.com, Bloomberg, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-07-04/world-records-hottest-day-ever-on-july-3.

McKenzie, J 2021, The nine best climate stories of the year, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, viewed 12 February 2025, https://thebulletin.org/2021/12/the-nine-best-climate-stories-of-the-year/.

Mellen, R 2021, Climate change led to extreme weather this year as leaders meet for COP26 summit, Washington Post, The Washington Post, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2021/cop26-extreme-weather-climate-change-action/.

Meredith, S 2023, ‘We are in uncharted territory’: World records hottest day ever for the third time in just four days, CNBC, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.cnbc.com/2023/07/07/climate-world-records-hottest-day-ever-for-the-third-time-this-week.html.

Niranjan, A, 2024, ‘Red alert’: last year was hottest on record by clear margin, says UN report, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/mar/19/red-alert-last-year-was-hottest-year-ever-by-wide-margin-says-un-report#:~:text=The%20report%20found%20temperatures%20near,of%20coal%2C%20oil%20and%20gas.

Peters, A, 2021, Fires to heat waves to floods to ice storms: 2021 in climate-fueled disasters, Fast Company, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.fastcompany.com/90698043/fires-to-heat-waves-to-floods-to-ice-storms-2021-in-climate-fueled-disasters.

Schmidt, G 2024, ‘Climate models can’t explain 2023’s huge heat anomaly — we could be in uncharted territory’, Nature, vol. 627, Nature Portfolio, no. 8004, pp. 467–467, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00816-z.

The Australian National University, Record heat in 2023 worsened global droughts, floods and wildfires 2024, Scimex, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/record-heat-in-2023-worsened-global-droughts-floods-and-wildfires.

Thompson, A, 2023, September Was the Most Anomalously Hot Month Ever, Scientific American, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/september-was-the-most-anomalously-hot-month-ever/.

Tollefson, J 2023, ‘Earth’s hottest month: these charts show what happened in July and what comes next’, Nature, vol. 620, Nature Portfolio, no. 7975, pp. 703–704, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02552-2.

Tollefson, J 2025, ‘Earth shattered heat records in 2023 and 2024: is global warming speeding up?’, Nature, vol. 637, Nature Portfolio, no. 8046, pp. 523–524, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-04242-z.

University of Maine, 2022, Climate Reanalyzer, Climatereanalyzer.org, viewed 12 February 2025, https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/t2_daily/?dm_id=world.

Weisberger, M 2021, 8 ominous climate milestones reached in 2021, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/climate-change-running-out-of-time-2021.

Weiss, S, Reynolds, M & Escobar-Tello, MP 2023, 10 Facts That Prove the World Is in a Climate Emergency, WIRED, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.wired.com/story/climate-change-facts/.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), EXPERT REACTION: 4 climate change records broken in 2021 – WMO State of the Climate Report 2022, Scimex, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/expert-reaction-the-wmo-state-of-the-global-climate-report-four-climate-change-records-broken-in-2021.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Sorry folks – La Nina is likely to be here till at least August 2022, Scimex, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/sorry-folks-la-nina-is-likely-to-be-here-till-at-least-august.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), WMO confirms 2023 was the hottest year on record 2024, Scimex, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/wmo-confirms-2023-was-the-hottest-year-on-record.

Zeke Hausfather 2023, State of the climate: Global temperatures throughout mid-2023 shatter records – Carbon Brief, Carbon Brief, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.carbonbrief.org/state-of-the-climate-global-temperatures-throughout-mid-2023-shatter-records/.

Zhong, R 2022, 2021 Was Earth’s Fifth-Hottest Year, Scientists Say, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 12 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/10/climate/2021-hottest-year.html.

Zoha Tunio, Z, 2022, In Pakistan, 33 Million People Have Been Displaced by Climate-Intensified Floods – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 12 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16092022/pakistan-flood-displacement/.

Nilsen, T, 2020, Climate change hits back, Svalbard coal mine flooded by melting glacier, Thebarentsobserver.com, thebarentsobserver, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.thebarentsobserver.com/industry-and-energy/climate-change-hits-back-svalbard-coal-mine-flooded-by-melting-glacier/142129.

Wikipedia Contributors, Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Wikipedia.org, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., viewed 19 February 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault.

Wikipedia Contributors, Svalbard – Wikipedia 2016, Wikipedia.org, viewed 19 February 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard.

Dapcevich, M 2022, These Pics of Sydney Harbor Don’t Debunk Sea Level Rise, Climate Change, Snopes, Snopes.com, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/sydney-harbor-sea-level-rise/.

United States Government, 2025, What is the difference between local sea level and global sea level?, Noaa.gov, viewed 19 February 2025, https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sealevel-global-local.html.

Pare, S 2024, Key Atlantic current could collapse soon, ‘impacting the entire world for centuries to come,’ leading climate scientists warn, livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/planet-earth/rivers-oceans/key-atlantic-current-could-collapse-soon-impacting-the-entire-world-for-centuries-to-come-leading-climate-scientists-warn.

Shannon, NG 2020, What’s Going on Inside the Fearsome Thunderstorms of Córdoba Province?, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/22/magazine/worst-storms-argentina.html.

Cnossen, I 2020, ‘Analysis and Attribution of Climate Change in the Upper Atmosphere From 1950 to 2015 Simulated by WACCM‐X’, Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics, vol. 125, Wiley, no. 12, viewed 19 February 2025, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020JA028623.

Perfetto, I, 2024, Driver of 2023’s extreme heat identified by scientists 2024, Cosmos, viewed 19 February 2025, https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/reason-for-2023-heat-extremes-suggests-1-5c-could-be-reached-sooner-than-expected/.

Bhatia, A & Choi-Schagrin, W 2021, Why Record-Breaking Overnight Temperatures Are So Concerning, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/09/upshot/record-breaking-hot-weather-at-night-deaths.html.

Gramling, C, 2021, The last 30 years were the hottest on record for the United States 2021, Science News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-weather-normals-30-years-hottest-record-united-states.

The Australian, North America bakes under sizzling sun 2025, Theaustralian.com.au, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theaustralian.com.au/world/north-america-bakes-under-sizzling-sun/news-story/e4ccc69b010f2944994a951d2bfd236d.

Golden, H 2021, The ‘heat dome’ explained: why the Pacific north-west is facing record temperatures, the Guardian, The Guardian, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/28/portland-seattle-heatwave-heat-dome-temperatures.

Fahys, J 2021, Global Warming Cauldron Boils Over in the Northwest in One of the Most Intense Heat Waves on Record Worldwide – Inside Climate News, Inside Climate News, viewed 18 February 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/29062021/pacific-northwest-heat-wave-climate-change/.

Ramirez, R 2021, The Northwest heat wave is ‘unprecedented.’ Here’s what’s pushing it into uncharted territory., CNN, viewed 18 February 2025, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/28/weather/heat-waves-climate-change/index.html.

Specktor, B 2021, Arctic Circle is already recording 118 F degree days (and summer is just heating up), livescience.com, Live Science, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.livescience.com/arctic-circle-siberia-hot-day-2021.html.

Warburton, M 2021, Hundreds of deaths as Canadian heatwave shatters records, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 18 February 2025, https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/hundreds-killed-as-canadian-heatwave-shatters-records-20210701-p585s2.html.

Krugman, P 2022, Opinion | What a Dying Lake Says About the Future, Nytimes.com, The New York Times, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/13/opinion/great-salt-lake.html.

Rebgetz, L 2017, Great Barrier Reef ‘too big to fail’ at $56b, Deloitte Access Economics report says, Abc.net.au, ABC News, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-26/great-barrier-reef-valued-56b-deloitte/8649936.

The Australian National University, 2022, ‘2022 water report: global warming is changing the water cycle’ 2023, Scimex, viewed 19 February 2025, https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/2022-water-report-global-warming-is-changing-the-water-cycle.

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